I felt that this essay is essential to future academic progression as it has determined the field of my interest and major research direction. The essay was a part of the final assessment at Camberwell College of Arts, written in Sept, 2020.
Abstract
This essay introduces the term landscape identity in the historical
context of Cornish art. While selecting specific cases, the writing briefly
addresses how images of the landscape were used to define identity
respectively in each example. It discusses how impressions of Cornish
identity were shaped as an integration, with case studies of listed artists
Frances Hodgkins, Euphemia Charlton Fortune, John Anthony Park,
Alfred Wallis, Bryan Pearce and Peter Lanyon. The essay described
how these artists’ interpretations developed due to a variety of factors,
including art trends and personal experience, critically analysed
historical examples. In the end, the essay identifies the value of artworks
for researching landscape identity in Cornish context. It also made
suggestions regarding how to interpret the landscape and its identity
responsibly, introduces potential directions this subject may contribute.
Keywords
Cornish, Identity, Landscape, Art, Painting
Pre-Art Colony Era
The key date of artists’ discovery of Cornwall was 1859, determined by
the completion of construction of the railway bridge over river Tamar,
Saltash. However, before the arrival of the majority of artist visitors, there
were etchings firstly depicted the town of St Ives, as the shown example
produced by Joseph Farington (Tovey, 2008).
Despite the fact that the reputation of art colonies in Cornwall became
internationally aware which ultimately led to the establishment of, for
example, Newlyn School and St Ives School, Cornwall has been
engaging in travelling artists’ activities for nearly a century. Integrating
into a collective society of fishers can be sometimes tricky. It was also
pointed out by Bernard Deacon’s research Imagining the fishing: artists
and fishermen in late nineteenth century Cornwall (2008). He described
the difficulty of visiting artists about to be accepted by locals, argued that
cultural and class difference was the main factor that caused such
division. And after their residential and working condition was ensured,
travelling artists were forced to focus on the pressure from the field
before their works become influential (Deacon, 2001).
Based on the drawing of French marine painter Jean Baptiste Henri
Durand-Brager, Cordier engraved an image which documented the
mining activities of St Ives. Although it was published in 1862 (Tovey,
n.d.), this industrial mining scene represents one of three perspectives of
interpreting Cornish landscape at the beginning of the nineteenth
century as Bernard Deacon suggested in his resourceful dissertation.
The other two readings, one is considering the landscape as an agent of
human activity, which reflects the visual evidence of Cornwall’s
economy, urban planning and social class structure; the other is the
natural landscape of the county which often being pictured as an image
of anti-urbanisation and anti-industrialisation (Deacon, 2001).
Interestingly, as Mr Deacon emphasised the vital part that imagined
image played in territorial identity, the latter two perspectives motivated
artists who expected to run into a region with traditional lifestyle and
medieval romance as well as idyllic beauties, to search this promised
land after the Barbizon school. Imaginations of the region and Cornish
residents significantly shaped the county (Paasi, 2001). It was enhanced
by paintings and etchings brought back by up-country gentleman artists
in its pre-art colony era. These works opportunely satisfied the art
market’s demand for a preindustrial countryside, very similar to Darby’s
theory of “unpeopled landscapes” (Darby, 2000); they also attracted
more peers to gather.
Labelling preoccupied impression of an idyllic rural area substantially
influenced the way artists depicting Cornwall for decades. Moreover,
imaginations about Cornwall gradually transitioned from an industrialised
civilisation into a remote and marginal land which preserves Celtic
culture heritage, bringing hybridity to Cornish identity (Deacon, 2001).
Stobbelaar and Pedroli (2011) defines landscape identity as “the
perceived uniqueness of a place”. After travelling artists’ intension
ascertained to identify the “Cornishness”, landscape identity would be
shaped unavoidable when their works were brought into public
attention.
Hodgkins, Fortune and Park
Word of mouth sometimes does interesting effects on artists in their
small circles. We could assume it is a very efficient way of publicity at
that time. New Zealand artist Frances Hodgkins, after her travel to
Europe and enrolling in a London art school, in 1902, she joined a
summer school in Brittany led by artist Norman Garstin. Norman Garstin
moved to Newlyn in 1886 and relocated in Penzance years after. It is
safe to argue that he is, to some extends, familiar with different aspects
of Cornwall. In both May and November 1902, Hodgkins talked about
the weather and climate of Cornwall in her letters. The same year, a
photo shows Garstin and his company on their way back from Helston
Furry Dance, indicating Hodgkins has started engaging in Cornish
culture and humanity. There are a few sketches of Cornish landscape
made by Frances Hodgkins in 1902; she mostly interested in drew tall
trees and overgrown trails, being fascinated by the wild vegetation and
settlements within. In 1903, a conventional watercolour painting Newlyn,
Cornwall was produced. She pictured fishing boats and small houses
that usually built right next to the seacoast in West Penwith.
Comparing to Newlyn School painting which prefers the realistic image about the
hardship of life, this work is much more lively and brighter, even gives a
sense of contemporary watercolour practice.
Figure 3, Hodgkins, F, 1903, Newlyn, Cornwall, [Watercolour on Paper]
Combining with Frances Hodgkins’s frequent visits to Cornwall, we can
retrieve many interesting scenes from her letters. Judging from her
social circle and artworks from the late stage, her immerse in Cornish life
is hard to ignore, despite complaints also occupies a great proportion. In
the letter to her mother dated 14th Jan 1915, Hodgkins complained local
cheese’s manufactural process and its tastelessness along with meat,
said she had to have Australian honey and butter from New Zealand for
their cheaper and tastier. However, in her myriad grumbles and a
subdued chronicle of troubles, the work of the painter still maintained the
enthusiasm and a sense of freshness to the region. Another watercolour
practice of Hodgkins depicts the town of St Ives in vivid colours.
Illustrative cottages were arranged on the side of the stone path; two
ambiguous figures bring an uncertain development of narrative to the
composition. A stranded boat on the sandy shore and the
conspicuous The Island introduced the location of the landscape
straightforwardly. In 1918, she wrote about wrecking’s presence in
Cornish cultural and tradition, although she wrote that she had no love to
Cornishmen, she still described locales as “a powerful, virile race”.
The controlling of brushwork for Frances Hodgkins became increasingly
loose while her style developed. Her membership of the Seven and Five
Society indicated the existence of the influence of other Cornwall-based
artists. In 2004, a gallery label described her 1931 painting Wings over
Water “a typical Seven and Five artists in its depiction of a table-top still
life set before a window”, and “evokes her memories of Cornwall where
she had settled in 1914” (‘Wings over Water’, Frances Hodgkins, 1930 |
Tate, 2020). Although the painting was very likely finished in her London
studio, the image represents an impactful moment of her settlement in
Bodinnick-by-Fowey (Townsend and Hillary, n.d.).
Under the financial pressure, Hodgkins temporarily left London and
relocated in Bodinnick. One year after, her famous piece Bodinnick,
Cornwall was produced. Many typical maritime elements of Cornish
harbour town— boats and their serried masts, stuccoed cottages, wildly
growing bushes — are composited in the image however divided by the
gate painted by black, heavy strokes. The painter observed this view
behind the window, a sense of retreat was added to Hodgkins’s Cornish
landscape considering this specific period of her life.
Bodinnick, Cornwall, the essay suggests, symbolised a new interpretation of
Cornwall by the artist; the county transitioned from an unpremeditated
journey to the arcadia that away from real-life pressure and worldly
bothering.
Euphemia Charlton Fortune is an American Impressionist. She travelled
to St Ives during a six-year tour in Europe. Her wide sight and openminded
aesthetic standard mixed demonstrated bright depiction among
images of St Ives. Her utilisation of colour, as one of the most
representative features of her painting, added a Mediterranean vividness
to the hard labour of fishing scenario. In 1922 a well-regarded painting
Scavenger was finished. It pictures a massive number of hovering
seagulls in bright colouration, rhythm the painting with an agile
movement.
The painting distinguishes from a gloomy, Strindberg-like description of
ordinary fisher sceneries of that time; but also distinctive from an almost
cinematic rendering of optimistic and idealised capture like Olsson’s
Moonlit Shore (1919). E. Charlton Fortune’s skilful control of brushwork
impressed the public. A similar painting was produced the next year. In
1924, Summer Morning, St Ives was awarded a silver medal in the
French Salon (Beebe, 2006), further introduced the presence of St Ives
art society to the West Europen academics. Comparing to the
Scavenger, the proportion of seagulls decreases when the painter’s
focus shifts to figures. The choice of paint grew more boldly. Fortune
applied solid Prussian blue to individualised labouring figures and sailing
vessels, and blend the roaming seagulls into an impressionistic
floatation of air.
It is very fascinating to see E. Charlton Fortune’s work together with
John Anthony Park’s practice. According to David Tovey (2013), a photo
taken by Gerard Wagner in 1925 shows Fortune enjoying a picnic with
John Park and his wife, leaving us a photographic conjecture that
Fortune might be taught under Park as well. John Park is also an en
plain air impressionist and considered an important bridge that links two
manners of painting, tradition and modern — which in this case, the
essay would suggest it is also two perspectives of seeing the landscape
of St Ives — among St Ives Society of Artists (John Anthony Park:
Borlase Smart John Wells Trust, n.d.).
John Anthony Park was trained under Julius Olsson and considered one
of his most accomplished pupils. He, among other old-fashioned
landscape painters, relative to the new generation of abstract artist,
“have painted the Cornwall they see as beautifully and vividly as if it is
there before their eyes”, explained the Cornish landscape in a very
subjective and idealised way (Baker, 1959).
His painting Morning Tide (1922) maintained a very typical impressionistic method of practice. He
has put a lot of effort in sensing and visualising the movement of
seawater and arranging boats as naturally as possible.
Some blurred figures of fishers are working at the front layer, and in the distance is the
lighthouse and St Ives Bay. Park documented a peaceful scene of a
coastal morning in which each element is orderly arranged.
During the Second World War, and it is also the period after his travel to
Europe, he returned to Cornwall. Snow in the Harbour of St Ives (1940)
was produced on the same year he returned to St Ives (John Anthony
PARK | Cornwall Artists Index, n.d.). It captures a silent landscape of
winter. Boats are either stranded on the shore or aimlessly floating on
the water. Two figures are occupied with labouring tasks — probably
examining a small boat, and the other one strolls behind them. The
images elegantly captured the peacefulness of St Ives, where, was
treated as a retreating destination away from the bombing. On the face
of it, the town shows a sort of impassive attitude to the raging war; but
the lack of vitality still indicated the bleak atmosphere of the war years —
although the Battle of Britain might have past when the painting was
being produced, the second world war was still at its most dreadful
period.
Richness and vibrance eventually returned to his palette, swept away
the dismal march of the war. St Ives Harbour (to commemorate the visit
of HMS ‘Howe’ to St Ives July, 1947) (1947) pictures the harbour of this
fishing town in an unusually atmospheric tone. The air is almost
transparent; the seawater is dyed to its typical jade-green under the
warmth of the sun. The Island jumps out with a prominent brightness,
provides an anchor point for the composition, free of its usual
arrangement as a blurred background. A joyful emotion, even a sense of
proudness is saturated in the landscape. This scene finally cast off the
desolation of the war and witnessed an embracing of another season of
hope.
Outsider Artist: Wallis and Pearce
References of indigenous Cornish artists often provide a pure and
innocent perspective to the county’s landscape and its identity.
Especially those who qualified for Dubuffet’s definition of Art Brut – that
an artist who did not receive a systematic education of art, and whose
artworks are positioned outside conventional, social, artistic or even
psychological requirements (Maclagan, 2010). The most representative
two St Ives artists Alfred Wallis and Bryan Pearce are often brought up
when discussing this subject.
Although Alfred Wallis did not start painting until he was 67, his painting
was highly recognised by travelling artists and had substantial influence
among them. Christopher Wood mentioned the recognition of Wallis’s
influence in his letter to Winifred Nicholson (Whybrow, 1999), Sven
Berlin saw his work “largely determined by the circumstance”, and Ben
Nicholson turned to started to engage in landscape elements after
experiencing the pictorial narration of Alfred Wallis (Wilkinson, 2017).
A considerable amount of Wallis’s work is repeated depiction of his
cottage and the view surrounds it. He imagined different bird view
angles, used large blocks of colour and simple strokes to paint the
coastal settlement of St Ives. Lack of engagement in professional artist
circles and conventional artistic activities such as travelling, life drawing,
determined that the painter had to find a resource of inspiration from his
memory, which majorly relies on his daily observation and experience as
a sailor. This relatively limited sight coincidently decided that his
interpretation of the Cornish landscape is immune from fashion art
trends and the interference of painting techniques, leaving explicit and
austere images as valuable documentations of objectivity. This feature
also revealed in other formats of his landscape. In 1969, the title of one
of his practice The Hold House Port Mear Square Island Port Mear
Beach was discovered while dismounting from its original frame (“The
Hold House Port Mear Square Island Port Mear Beach”, Alfred
Wallis, ?c.1932 | Tate, n.d.). The name is so straightforward that it is
almost a descriptive sentence instead of the title for fine art.
Alfred Wallis’s work avoids the significance in the change of landscapes,
perhaps it was decided by a specific period in the history; his depiction
often focuses on the events that happened in the surrounding space
which in the case, the sea. In Wreck of the Alba (1938 – 1939), he
pictured a coal carrier struggled to survive the turbulence of huge waves,
capturing a real event with his untutored hand and sensitivity to the
perimeter. Wallis reminds audiences of the existence of catastrophic
incident and their constant involvement in the county’s history.
Wrecks rendered from the swallowing of a raging sea almost formed a new
landscape without any deliberated exaggeration for a dramatic
atmosphere. Daniel, S (2009) once argued that with the correct method,
instructive ideas or perspective, restoration of the authenticity of a
landscape is feasible. Perhaps we can apply his opinion in the
perspective of art. Alfred Wallis’s unalloyed narration certainly brought
the possibility to such restoration, provided invaluable information for
historians.
Another iconic outsider artist from Cornwall, Bryan Pearce, could be
argued as one of the most crucial naïve artists in post-Wallis art of St
Ives. His consistent painting practise for almost fifty years has recorded
“subtle changes of St Ives” (Bryan Pearce – Exhibition at Tate St Ives |
Tate, n.d.). He attended St Ives School and lived in the context that
other modernist artists may have encouraged him to paint when he was
little (Shakespear, n.d.).
Bryan Pearce often constructs his picture with simple colour and elegant
lines, finishes with a visionary display of elements of his interests. One
of the most well-known painting, St Ives from Cemetery (1975), pictured
a ship voyaging through an empty harbour that enclosed by vegetated
hills with a low-rise stone church and a graveyard. Pearce brought
another appearance of his sun-bathing topic into the audiences’ eye. His
sensitivity reveals in this capture of the resting place of locales, depicts a
sentimental scene from an indigenous perspective. Furthermore,
surprisingly, despite Bryan Pearce is not unfamiliar with exhibitions and
has become a successful artist in his days, he was unaware of the old
fisherman nor his painting while comparison between his work and
Wallis’s is regular; Pearce’s work maintained an uninfluenced purity
while sticking to a primitive way of picturing the landscape, which makes
his artwork instinctual (Whybrow, 1999).
Peter Lanyon
Peter Lanyon, another indigenous artist of Cornwall, enjoys interpreting
landscape with his personal experience. Peter Lanyon shares a
particular interest in demonstrating the grievous, dark side of the Cornish
landscape. His identity as an indigenous Cornishmen and his youth in
the art-flourishing town of St Ives granted him a distinctive vision
regarding Cornish landscape. For example, St Just, stands out of other
mine-themed paintings that pictured the decline of a quondam industry
and lives faded with this history. His family history as mine-owner
provides him with an internal perspective to understand the landscape
with specific narratives (Laird, 2014). Skilful miners and squalid smoke
were once the icon that represents Cornwall as an industrialised region
(Deacon, 2001). The productive force changed the natural landscape,
embedded mechanical manipulation to nature. And the fading of this
mining fervour took back the landscape and returned it to an assimilated
status. Essentially, economic demands directly result in the change of
landscape by human activities (Baker, 1992). Understanding this
argument could help us to understand Lanyon’s perspective better.
When he experienced a sense of incapability facing the passing of
history, the tone and the subject of the painting is determined. From
outside perspectives those abandoned mines might be another evidence
of underdeveloped infrastructure of Cornwall, however, they evoked
memories of Peter Lanyon, and the artist decided to show the public the
crucifixion from his angle.
Lanyon’s speciality in rearranging a landscape based on personal
experience and saturation of rich contexts like culture and history came
up as “experiential landscape”. His work entirely relies on subjectivity,
observation and personal experience that the industrial outcome
detached from the meaninglessness of general abstract art (Cornish,
2016). In order to feel, he chose to fly the glider for a retrospective angle
of examining his beloved Cornwall. Fast, changing landscape distorted
by the speed is commonly seen in his gliding paintings — almost melt as
a whole. There is no longer separated elements that assemble a
particular landscape but as an integration, layer by layer, bonding by the
artist’s sensuousness.
Peter Lanyon expressed his concern about losing Cornish identity &
landscape. He absolutely sensed the threat of Cornwall transforming into
a leisure resort due to the extinction of the former pillar industries of
fishing and mining (Lanyon, Lanyon and Feaver, 1983). The
irreplaceability of landscape reflects on its embodiment with the history
of its people, which could be easily obliterated (Muir, 1998). His devotion
to the Cornish landscape as well as his evident belief in social
responsibility as an artist (Stephens, 2001) explains his concern and
repeated depicting of similar subject.
A series of stone study produced after his return from the military also
shares a significance in his oeuvre. His Stone of Penwith (1947),
Landscape of the Stone Leaves (1952) and Standing Stones (1957) was
greatly inspired by prehistory megaliths on the Cornish field. The
materiality of these subjects also inspired artists like Barbara Hepworth.
The quoits on Penwith Peninsula is prehistory graves or altars,
representing those deceased individually that unknown to the history.
When write about megaliths of Bodmin Moor, Christoper Tilley detailed
describes their materiality and significance relation to the landscape, as
“a cultural triumph over the sleeping powers of the rock”. Lanyon’s
choice of topic reflects his humanism and a strong depiction of culture
signature over historical objects (Tilley, 1996).
Conclusion
As Peter Lanyon witnessed the transformation of Cornish society with
his distinctive point of view, his interpretation has a particular referential
value for us to understand the development of Cornish identity into
contemporary times. Artists who consciously or unconsciously recorded
the fading of the old landscape and the formation of new ones, their
pictorial productions and writings are evidence of their interactions with
the Cornish landscape. The essay suggests these artists’ relocation
(some might skipped this process) to the region and their intension of
searching interested factors for artistic depiction could be considered as
a behaviour of foraging, and therefore, what termed “the practice of
landscape identity” (Butler and Sarlöv-Herlin, 2019). Although things
they identified might not necessarily be material, conducting activities
would also allow these outsiders to start building a new connection of
site-specific landscape identity (Butler et al., 2017). The alteration of
landscape is often determined by cultural and natural forces (Antrop,
2004). Artworks, art critics and artists, in this case, opportunely
demonstrated their value as a critical recorder of the transformation of
Cornish landscape and identity. Analysing the development of Cornish
art holds many promises to studies of landscape identity in related
fields.
The essay also believes it is safe to argue that the Cornish identity
reflected in the landscape paintings is a continuous assimilation of
interpretations and depictions of artists who engaged in this history;
therefore the identity established by the pictorial histories could be
considered a collective act of those artists. Being recognised or being
accepted as one of their members also played a crucial part in
determining the possibility that artworks being recognised as
“contributed to the subject”. This recognition could be determined
autonomously or externally. Self-isolated artists like Alfred Wallis
brought a distinctive example of being a well-recognised Cornish artist,
although he was unconsciously about his artistic achievement, his works
were preserved and brought to the public by other colleagues.
Defining the word Cornish can be flexible and subjective. The essay
suggests that we should focus on the identity established by relevant
factors when engaging with a particular term, for example, Cornish
landscape or Cornish artist. Immersing experiences, real-world and
physical engagement of activities that aims for a mutual understanding is
fundamentally required for higher recognition of identity and acceptance.
“The Cornish people themselves are like their land, an old and knowing
race, withdrawn to strangers, living as much in the past as the present;
without, as has been said, much creative inspiration yet with a quick
response to things of that nature — what one of their own people”
(Baker, 1959). Despite subjectivity generally exists in art, to
comprehensively comprehend an identity, which, in this case, the
Cornish identity, the importance of understanding Cornish cultural
signature and the landscape as objective as possible is significant. A
personal interpretation of one’s identity based on images of the
landscape is tightly connected to the initial way of interrogating the
question. Thus, we must be cautious upon any circumstance that might
involve with preoccupied impressions.
In conclusion, artists who engaged in the Cornish landscape play a
significant part in shaping its regional identity; being accepted as a
Cornish artist could determine the degree of recognition in contributing
to the subject; a mutual understanding based on immersing experience
as well as the objectivity identified during its process is crucial to
interpret Cornish landscape identity responsibly.
Reference
Antrop, M., 2004. Landscape change and the urbanization process in
Europe. Landscape and Urban Planning, 67(1-4), pp.9-26.
Baker, D., 1959. Britain’s Art Colony By The Sea, By Denys Val Baker.
1st ed. London: Ronald, p.13.
Beebe, L., 2006. EUPHEMIA CHARLTON FORTUNE GALLERY: The
Art, History, Paintings & Biography Of Artist E. CHARLTON FORTUNE!.
[online] Lawrencebeebe.com. Available at:
<http://www.lawrencebeebe.com/artistsbiographies/echarltonfortune.htm
l> [Accessed 1 September 2020].
Bsjwtrust.co.uk., n.d. John Anthony Park : Borlase Smart John Wells
Trust. [online] Available at: <https://www.bsjwtrust.co.uk/artists/johnanthony-
park/> [Accessed 1 September 2020].
Butler, A. and Sarlöv-Herlin, I., 2019. Changing landscape identity—
practice, plurality, and power. Landscape Research, 44(3), pp.271-277.
Butler, A., Sarlöv-Herlin, I., Knez, I., Ångman, E., Ode Sang, Å. and
Åkerskog, A., 2017. Landscape identity, before and after a forest fire.
Landscape Research, 43(6), pp.878-889.
Cornish, S., 2016. Soaring Flight: Peter Lanyon’S Gliding Paintings.
[online] Studio International – Visual Arts, Design and Architecture.
Available at: <https://www.studiointernational.com/index.php/soaringflight-
peter-lanyons-gliding-paintings-review-courtauld-gallery-london>
[Accessed 1 September 2020].
Cornwallartists.org. n.d. John Anthony PARK | Cornwall Artists Index.
[online] Available at: <https://cornwallartists.org/cornwall-artists/johnanthony-
park> [Accessed 1 September 2020].
Daniels, S., 2009. The making of The iconography of landscape. cultural
geographies, 16(1).
Darby, W., 2000. Landscape And Identity. Oxford: Berg.
Deacon, B., 2001. Imagining the Fishing: Artists and Fishermen in Late
Nineteenth Century Cornwall. Rural History, [online] 12(2), pp.159-178.
Available at: <https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/21932/Imagi
ning%20the%20fishing.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y> [Accessed 29
August 2020].
Deacon, B., 2001. The Reformulation Of Territorial Identity: Cornwall In
The Late Eighteenth And Nineteenth Centuries, University of Exeter.
Laird, S., 2020. Fellow-Feeling For A Scarred Landscape. [online]
Churchtimes.co.uk. Available at:
<https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2014/5-
september/features/features/fellow-feeling-for-a-scarred-landscape>
[Accessed 18 May 2020].
Lanyon, P., Lanyon, A. and Feaver, W., 1983. Cornwall. Penzance,
Cornwall: A. Hodge.
Maclagan, D., 2010. Outsider Art: From The Margins To The
Marketplace. Reaktion Books Ltd., pp.7-8.
Muir, R., 1998. Reading the landscape, rejecting the present. Landscape
Research, 23(1), pp.71-82.
Paasi, Anssi (2001), ‘Europe as a social process and discourse:
considerations of place, boundaries and identity’, European Urban and
Regional Studies 8.1, 7- 28.
Shakespear, T., n.d. Bryan Pearce » Tom Shakespeare. [online] Tom
Shakespeare. Available at:
<https://farmerofthoughts.co.uk/collected_pieces/bryan-pearce/>
[Accessed 1 September 2020].
Stephens, C., 2001. ‘Headland’, Peter Lanyon, 1948 | Tate. [online]
Tate. Available at: <https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/lanyonheadland-
t06466> [Accessed 1 September 2020].
Stobbelaar, D. and Pedroli, B., 2011. Perspectives on Landscape
Identity: A Conceptual Challenge. Landscape Research, [online] 36(3),
pp.321-339. Available at: <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01426397.2011.564860>
[Accessed 25 August 2020].
Tate. n.d. Bryan Pearce – Exhibition At Tate St Ives | Tate. [online]
Available at: <https://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-stives/
exhibition/bryan-pearce> [Accessed 1 September 2020].
Tate. n.d. ‘‘The Hold House Port Mear Square Island Port Mear Beach’’,
Alfred Wallis, ?C.1932 | Tate. [online] Available at:
<https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/wallis-the-hold-house-port-mearsquare-
island-port-mear-beach-t01087> [Accessed 31 August 2020].
Tate. n.d. ‘Wings Over Water’, Frances Hodgkins, 1930 | Tate. [online]
Available at: <https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/hodgkins-wings-overwater-
n06237> [Accessed 31 August 2020].
Tilley, C., 1996. The powers of rocks: Topography and monument
construction on Bodmin Moor. World Archaeology, 28(2), pp.161-176.
Tovey, D., n.d. Pre-Colony St Ives Art. [online] stivesartinfo. Available at:
<https://www.stivesart.info/pre-colony-st-ives-art/> [Accessed 28 August
2020].
Tovey, D., 2013. Euphemia Charlton Fortune. Siren, [online] (1), pp.19 –
20. Available at: <https://www.stivesart.info/st-ives-art-latest-researchnewsletter/>
[Accessed 1 September 2020].
Tovey, D., 2008. St Ives Art Pre-1890: The Dawn Of The Colony.
Tewkesbury: Wilson Books.
Townsend, J. and Hillary, S., 2006. A Lively Parrot: Frances Hodgkins’s
Wings Over Water – Tate Papers | Tate. [online] Tate. Available at:
<https://www.tate.org.uk/research/publications/tate-papers/05/a-livelyparrot-
frances-hodgkins-wings-over-water> [Accessed 31 August 2020].
Whybrow, M., 1999. The Innocent Eye: Primitive And Naive Painters In
Cornwall. Bristol: Sansom & Company Ltd.
Wilkinson, D., 2017. The Alfred Wallis Factor. Cambridge: The
Lutterworth Press, p.15.
Figure List
Fig. 1. Farington, F., 1813. St Ives. [Etching], unknown collection,
Available at: <https://www.stivesart.info/pre-colony-st-ives-art/>
[Accessed 1 September 2020]
Fig. 2. Durand-Brager, J., 1862. St Ives. [Etching], unknown collection,
Available at: <https://www.stivesart.info/pre-colony-st-ives-art/>
[Accessed 1 September 2020]
Fig. 3. Hodgkins, F., 1932. Bodinnick, Cornwall. [watercolour on paper],
Tate Collection, Available at:
<https://www.franceshodgkins.com/bodinnick-cornwall-c1931>
[Accessed 25 Aug 2020]
Fig. 4. Hodgkins, F., 1931. Wings over Water. [oil on canvas], private
collection, Available at: <https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/hodgkinswings-
over-water-n06237> [Accessed 25 August 2020]
Fig. 5. Hodgkins, F., 1903. Newlyn, Cornwall. [watercolour on paper],
unknown collection, Available at:
<https://completefranceshodgkins.com/objects/25893/newlyn-cornwall>
[Accessed 26 August 2020]
Fig. 6. Fortune, E., 1922. Scavenger. [oil on canvas], unknown
collection, Available at: <http://www.artnet.com/artists/echarltonfortune/
scavengers-st-ives-Dxsxwj_PuBHMnFeU18hbDQ2> [Accessed
26 August 2020]
Fig. 7. Fortune, E., 1923. Summer Morning, St Ives. [oil on canvas],
unknown collection, Available at:
<http://fortunesafloat.blogspot.com/2018/02/e-charlton-fortuneexhibition.
html> [Accessed 26 August 2020]
Fig. 8. Park, J., 1922. Morning Tide. [oil on canvas], Harris Museum &
Art Gallery, Available at: <https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/morningtide-
152326> [Accessed 27 August 2020]
Fig. 9. Park, J., 1940. Snow in the Harbour of St Ives. [oil on canvas],
Tate collection, Available at: <https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/snowin-
the-harbour-of-st-ives-201168/search/actor:park-john-anthony-
18801962/page/1/view_as/grid> [Accessed 27 August 2020]
Fig. 10. Park, J., 1947. St Ives Harbour (to commemorate the visit of
HMS ‘Howe’ to St Ives July, 1947. [oil on canvas], St Ives Guildhall,
Available at: <https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/st-ives-harbour-15229>
[Accessed 27 August 2020]
Figure 11, Wallis. A., 1932, The Hold House Port Mear Square Island Mort Mear Beach,
[oil on cardboard], Tate Collection
Available at: <https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/wallis-the-hold-houseport-
mear-square-island-port-mear-beach-t01087> [Accessed 28 August
2020]
Fig. 12. Wallis, A., 1938-9. Wreck of the Alba. [oil on wood], Tate
Colloection, Available at: <https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/walliswreck-
of-the-alba-t06871> [Accessed 28 August 2020]
Fig. 13. Pearce, B., 1975. St Ives from the Cemetery. [oil on board], Tate
Colloection, Available at: <https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/pearcest-
ives-from-the-cemetery-t06733> [Accessed 28 August 2020]
Fig. 14. Lanyon, P., 1953. St Just. [oil on cavas], Tate Colloection,
Available at: <https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2014/5-
september/features/features/fellow-feeling-for-a-scarred-landscape>
[Accessed 28 August 2020]
Fig. 15. Lanyon, P., 1964. Glide Path. [oil and plastic on cavas],
Courtesy of The Whitworth Art Gallery, University of Manchester,
Available at: <https://www.studiointernational.com/index.php/soaringflight-
peter-lanyons-gliding-paintings-review-courtauld-gallery-london>
[Accessed 28 August 2020]
Fig. 16. Lanyon, P., 1947. Stone of Penwith. [oil and pencil on cavas],
private collection, Available at:
<https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2019/modern-post-warbritish-
art/peter-lanyon-stone-of-penwith> [Accessed 29 August 2020]
Fig. 17. Lanyon, P., 1952 – 1958. Landscape of the Stone Leaves.
[screenprint], British Council Collection, Available at:
<http://visualarts.britishcouncil.org/collection/artists/lanyon-peter-
1918/object/landscape-of-the-stone-leaves-lanyon-1952-p570>
[Accessed 29 August 2020]
Fig. 18. Lanyon, P., 1957. Standing Stones. [lithograph print on over
paper], private collection, Available at:
<https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2019/fine-artsociety-
l19350/lot.276.html> [Accessed 31 August 2020]
Bibliography
1992. Peter Lanyon. London: South Bank Centre.
Bednarik, R. and Falk, D., 2011. The Human Condition. New York:
Springer.
Brown, D., Jones, A. and Lewis, D., 1985. St Ives 1939-64. London:
Tate Gallery Publications.
Butler, A., Sarlöv-Herlin, I., Knez, I., Ångman, E., Ode Sang, Å. and
Åkerskog, A., 2017. Landscape identity, before and after a forest
fire. Landscape Research, [online] 43(6), pp.878-889. Available at:
<https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01426397.2017.1344205>
[Accessed 1 September 2020].
Butler, A., Knez, I., Åkerskog, A., Sarlöv Herlin, I., Ode Sang, Å. and
Ångman, E., 2019. Foraging for identity: the relationships between
landscape activities and landscape identity after catastrophic landscape
change. Landscape Research, [online] 44(3), pp.303-319. Available at:
<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331805390_Foraging_for_ide
ntity_the_relationships_between_landscape_activities_and_landscape_i
dentity_after_catastrophic_landscape_change> [Accessed 29 August
2020].
Ermischer, G., 2004. Mental landscape: landscape as idea and
concept. Landscape Research, [online] 29(4), pp.371-383. Available at:
<https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/01426390420002890
19?scroll=top&needAccess=true> [Accessed 1 September 2020].
Harvey, D., 2000. Landscape Organization, Identity and Change:
Territoriality and hagiography in medieval west Cornwall. Landscape
Research, 25(2), pp.201-212.
Hepworth, B., 2012. A Pictorial Autobiography. London: Tate Publishing.
Loupa Ramos, I., Bianchi, P., Bernardo, F. and Van Eetvelde, V., 2019.
What matters to people? Exploring contents of landscape identity at the
local scale. Landscape Research, [online] 44(3), pp.320-336. Available
at: <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01426397.2019.1579901 [Accessed 23 August 2020].
Renes, H., 2015. Historic Landscapes Without History? A
Reconsideration of the Concept of Traditional Landscapes. Rural
Landscapes: Society, Environment, History, [online] 2(1). Available at:
<https://www.rurallandscapesjournal.com/articles/10.16993/rl.ae/>
[Accessed 27 August 2020].
Tooby, M., 1994. Tate St Ives. London: Tate Gallery Publications.
Whybrow, M., 2002. St. Ives 1883-1993. [Place of publication not
identified]: Dart Books.
Ce Chen's studio of art 